The Odyssey: Summary and Analysis

The Odyssey is the second of the two great epic poems attributed to Homer, and it is one of the foundational works of Western literature. Composed in the eighth century BCE, the Odyssey tells the story of the Greek hero Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, and his long, ten-year journey home from the Trojan War to his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus. Along the way, Odysseus and his crew encounter a fantastic series of monsters, sorceresses, and gods: the Cyclops Polyphemus, the enchantress Circe, the Sirens, the whirlpool Charybdis, the six-headed monster Scylla, the lotus-eaters, and the cannibal Laestrygonians. The poem is at once an adventure story, a meditation on the meaning of homecoming, a study of the relationship between gods and humans, and a complex work of literary art that has been admired, imitated, and reinterpreted for almost three thousand years.

This page is a concise summary and analysis of the Odyssey. It explains the structure of the poem, the story of Odysseus’ wanderings, and the themes of the work. It links back to the Greek Mythology cluster, the Iliad page, and the Trojan War page.

The Story

The Odyssey is divided into 24 books. The first four books tell the story of Telemachus, the son of Odysseus, who has grown up without his father and is being pressed by a horde of suitors for the hand of his mother Penelope. Telemachus sets out to find news of his father, visiting Nestor at Pylos and Menelaus at Sparta, and learning that Odysseus is alive but a captive of the nymph Calypso.

The next eight books (Books 5–12) tell the story of Odysseus’ release from Calypso and his wanderings. He is shipwrecked on Scheria, the land of the Phaeacians, where he is entertained by King Alcinous and Queen Arete. He tells them the story of his wanderings: the Cicones, the lotus-eaters, the Cyclops Polyphemus (whom he blinds after escaping his cave), Aeolus and the bag of winds, the Laestrygonians, Circe, the descent to the underworld, the Sirens, Scylla and Charybdis, the cattle of the Sun, and the shipwreck that leaves him stranded on Calypso’s island.

The last twelve books (Books 13–24) tell the story of Odysseus’ return to Ithaca and his revenge on the suitors. Athena disguises him as a beggar. He is recognized by his old swineherd Eumaeus, by his dog Argos (who dies of joy at seeing his master), and by his old nurse Eurycleia. He wins the archery contest proposed by Penelope, slays the suitors with the help of Telemachus and Eumaeus, and is reunited with Penelope.

The Major Themes

Homecoming (Nostos)

The Odyssey is the great epic of homecoming. The Greek word nostos — return — is one of the key terms of the poem, and the whole work is structured around the hero’s long journey back to his home, his wife, and his son. The theme of homecoming was so central to the Greek imagination that the word nostalgia (literally, “return pain”) was invented to describe the pain of being far from home.

Hospitality (Xenia)

The Odyssey is also the great epic of hospitality. The Greek word xenia refers to the reciprocal obligations of host and guest, and the entire poem is structured around the proper (or improper) treatment of guests. Polyphemus violates the rules of hospitality by eating his guests; the suitors violate the rules of hospitality by consuming the wealth of Odysseus’ household and pressing unwanted attentions on Penelope. The Phaeacians, by contrast, are the model of proper hospitality, and they are rewarded for it by the gods.

Identity and Recognition (Anagnorisis)

The Odyssey is centrally concerned with the question of identity. Odysseus is the polytropos — “the man of many turns” — and he spends much of the poem concealing his identity. He reveals himself to the Cyclops as “Nobody,” he returns to Ithaca in disguise, and he is only gradually recognized by his wife, his father, and his old servants. The recognition scenes (the Greek word is anagnorisis) are among the most powerful moments of the poem, and they have been the model for the recognition scene in Western literature ever since.

Gods and Humans

The Odyssey is also a meditation on the relationship between gods and humans. Athena is the constant helper of Odysseus, intervening on his behalf throughout the poem. Poseidon is the constant obstacle, angered by the blinding of his son Polyphemus. Zeus presides over the whole. The gods are not omnipotent; they quarrel with each other, and they are subject to the constraints of fate. The human hero, however, has a kind of freedom that the gods lack: he can choose, and his choices have consequences.

The Composition of the Poem

The Odyssey was probably composed orally in the late eighth or early seventh century BCE, and it was written down shortly afterwards. The poem is the work of a single, very great poet (whom later tradition named Homer), but it makes use of many older traditions, including folk tales, legends of the Trojan War, and stories of seers and sorceresses. The poem is written in dactylic hexameter, the standard meter of Greek epic poetry, and it uses a highly traditional set of formulas and themes.

The Structure of the Poem

The Odyssey is structured around a complex set of parallel and contrastive scenes. The Telemachy (Books 1–4) mirrors the wanderings of Odysseus; the descent to the underworld mirrors the return to the upper world; the recognition scene with Penelope mirrors the recognition scene with Eurycleia; the slaughter of the suitors mirrors the trial of the bow. The poem uses a sophisticated set of narrative devices, including the flashback (Odysseus’ tale to the Phaeacians), the embedded narrative (Nestor’s and Menelaus’ stories within the Telemachy), and the parallel plot (Telemachus’ growth into a man parallels his father’s homecoming).

The Influence of the Odyssey

The Odyssey has been one of the most influential works in the Western tradition. It is the model for the long epic poem of adventure (Virgil’s Aeneid, Dante’s Divine Comedy, Joyce’s Ulysses, Walcott’s Omeros). It is the source of countless images and phrases: the Sirens, the lotus-eaters, the Cyclops, Scylla and Charybdis, “rosy-fingered dawn,” “the wine-dark sea.” It is the origin of the literary archetype of the long journey home, the loyal wife, the wise son, the loyal swineherd, the disguised king. The Odyssey is, quite simply, the foundation of Western storytelling.